Fundamental
Aspect of Vedanta and Kashmir Shaivism
A comparative view of the
two Philosophies
Jankinath Kaul "Kamal"
The
six systems of Hindu Philosophy are Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Saankhya, Yoga,
Mimaamsa
and Vedanta. There are also many other schools of
thought in India, but all are the variations of
these six systems termed the Hindu Philosophy. To
understand this clearly, we have to realize that
the basis of all the schools of Indian Thought is
the same which we call the Ultimate Reality,
Supreme Consciousness, Brahman, Siva, Allah or
God. All these schools of thought several conclude
on common concepts which are :-
i) All accept the central
cycle of Nature, which is without beginning or
end. This consists of vast phases of Creation,
Sustenance and Dissolution.
ii) All accept that
life and death are but two phases of a single
cycle to which the soul is bound. This is
because of the ignorance of the true nature of
things.
iii) All accept Dharma
as the moral law of the universe that accounts
for these central cycles of Nature, as well as
the destiny of the human soul.
iv) All agree that
knowledge of the self is the path to freedom and
that Yoga is the method to attain final
liberation.
All the schools of thought
are, thus, but the fundamental interpretations of
the Ultimate Reality. They are so inter-related
that the hypothesis and the method of each is
dependent upon that of the other. They are, in no
way, contradictory to one another, as they all
lead to the same practical end, the knowledge of
reality and liberation of soul.
<verses>
'To get rid of evil and
to attain permanent and supreme bliss', is the
innate desire of every creature in the world.
Here is an attempt made
to study a comparative view of the two schools of
Indian thought, namely the Advaita Vedanta of
Shankara and the Kashmir Shaivism, as these have
great affinities with one another. Both advocate
monism. Fundamentally, they have a single
conception, but each develops it individually to
suit particular minds. The physical reason for
their individual development, apart from that of
the mental, may be due to Historical background
and Geographical situation of each.
Badarayana, probably,
founded Vedanta in the plains of India while
Durvasa expounded Trika Shaiva in the Himalayan
ranges, the two being sobre and sentimental
respectively. Vadanta is an enquiry into the
nature of the Ultimate Reality while Shaivism
discusses the nature of this ultimate Reality and
explains the cause of the initial impulse in
nature. The sources of Vedanta are Vedas and those
of Shaivism are the Tantras, which give
supplementary explanations to Vedic thought. Both
are said to be of divine authorship. No doubt,
they are the revelations favoured to great sages
and seers of this ancient land. But neither
objects the postulates of either of these.
Both of these evolved
philosophies seem to have had prevailed in this
beautiful land of Kashmir since the very early
times i.e. the first century A. D. or earlier.
This is evident from a keen observation of the
performances of daily and occasional rites and
rituals by the Kastimiri Pandits even upto this
day. Hymns from the Vedas and recitations from the
Tantras are included in all kinds of such
performances, simultaneously. Even later hymns
like Mukundamala- a hymn to Lord Vishnu, and
Sivamahimnastotram- a hymn to Lord Siva - the
supreme deities of the two philosophies, are
recited and worship offered simultaneously by
devotees in traditional way. By this we understand
that people in this land of Kashyapa have from the
very early times been accommodating perhaps
because of their gift of intelligence from Nature.
They always assimilated what came their way.
According to Dr. Aurel Stien," the Brahmins
absorbed Buddhist Faith and lived in harmony with
their brethren who were converted to this faith in
the valley. Thus the old religion here seems to
have been polytheistic, of course, with special
inclination towards ritualistic Shaivism.
Kula system of Shaivism,
advocating the highest form of Siva had been
introduced here in the fourth century A. D. Krama
system of Shaivism, connected with Raja-Yog, and
Kundalini Yoga, which stress that vital air and
mind are interdependent, also had been introduced
here early.
Then, Sankaracharya
(788-820 A. D.) visited this valley in the first
two decades of the ninth century. He only
re-established the true faith of Upanishads called
the Vedantas. To check further deterioration
caused by the split in Buddhisn, he explained the
Upanishads in a system on the basis of Brahma
Sutras in its commentary. He gave Vedanta
Philosophy the right footing when he wrote his
valuable commentaries on the ten principal
Upanishads and the Bhagwadgita. He composed a
number of hymns to different deities like
Saraswati. Krishna, Skanda and so on, to give the
unilateral direction to multi- farious faiths in
the whole country. He gave practical instructions
that worship of different deities leads to the
same goal, the Ultimate Truth on realization.
In his hymn to
Dakshinamurti, Sankara's conception ultimate
reality is the same as that of Pratyabhijna,
reintroduced by Somananda and Utpalacharya, in
Kashmir. To examine a comparison, let us study the
following:
<verses>
"He, in whom this
universe, prior to its projection was potentially
present like a tree in a seed, and by whom it was
wrought to its multiform by the magic, as it were,
of His own will or in the manner of a great Yogi
out of His own power, to that Supreme Being,
embodied in the auspicious and benign Guru, I
offer my profound salutation."
And <verses>
"By His own will the
Supreme Lord, the essence of Knowledge (Supreme
Consciousness) projects causelessly like the Yogi
into this multiformal world."
Again, in the first
stanza of the Dakshinamurti Stotra, Sankar, says:
<verses>
which means: "Who,
by Maya as by dream, sees Himself the universe
which is inside Him, like unto a city that appears
in a mirror, (but) which is manifested as if
without." In the commentary to this stanza in
his book entitled 'The Hymns Of Sankara', Dr.
T.M.P. Mahadevan points out: "It is to be
noted that in this hymn Sankara employs certain
key-terms and concepts of the Pratyabhijna system
known popularly as Kashmir Shaivism. The
illustration of the mirrored city is found in the
pratyabhijna works". Thus the people of
Kashmir seem to have been influenced by the
Vedanta Philosophy of Sankara as well as by the
ancient Shaivism which later developed into
Kashmir Shaivism.
Earlier two great Shaiva
families of Sangamaditya and Atrigupta had
migrated into Kashmir, when King Lalitaditya
(699-736 A. D.) ruled here. They practised Tantric
Shaiva rituals. These had already influenced the
thought of people here when Shankara's Tantric
Philisophy spread and influenced the Trika also.
This leads us to think that Shankara must have had
personal touch with some founder-writers here. To
illucidate this we quote the following passage
from the book entitled 'Abhinavagupta - An
Historical & Philosophical Study' by Prof. Dr.
K. C. Pandey :
"On the authority of
the Rajatarangini (Ch. V, 66) we know that Bhatta
Kallata, the pupil of Vasugupta, was a
contemporary of Avantivarman, King of Kashmir
(855-883 A.D). There he is referred to as 'Siddha.'
It is, therefore, evident that at that time he was
an old man of established reputation. Vasugupta,
the teacher of Kallata, therefore, it is natural
to suppose, belonged to the preceding scholastic
generation extending from about 825 to 850 A. D.
We shall, therefore, not be wrong if we say that
Vasugupta gave a systematic form to the
philosophical ideas of the monistic Tantras in his
Siva Sutras in the next decade after
Shankaracharya's visit to Kashmir towards the end
of the second decade of the 9th century A.
D." - (Page 154)
Thus, the mixed faith
that the people of Kashmir had professed so for
developed into a philosophical system when
Vasugupta and Somananda gave Spanda and
Pratyabhijna thoughts during the middle and latter
part of the 9th century respectively. The Trika
system of philosophy which had appeared on this
earth through Durvasa, was in this way
re-introduced by Siva's will, for the welfare and
spiritual development of the people of Kaliyuga.
Srimat Swami Lakshman Joo, in one of his lectures
on Kashmir Shaivism says, "Like Vedanta, this
system endeavours to remove the innate ignorance
that separates the individual from the
universal."
Then, what are the points
of difference between these two established
philosophies?
There is no difference so
far as the aim of both is concerned. Both the
monistic philosophies aim at the realization of
the Ultimate Reality, which one calls Parabrahman
and the other calls Parama Siva. So Paramasiva or
Parameshwara is that ultimate Reality, which the
Vedas declare as "This world came out from
the Eternal Existence which is one, the only and
without the second."
<verses>
But there are points of
difference in so far as their composition is
concerned. On the basis of Sankhya, the two
philosophies hold that the universe comprises of
tattwas (or categories).
Twenty three are common
in both:
Five Bhutas - (Elements)
Five Jnanendriyas (Organs
of cognition)
Five Karmendriyas (Organs
of action)
Five Tanmatras (subtle
elements)
Three Antahkaranas
(internal organs)-Mind, Intellect & Ego.
The points of difference
are:
i) In Vedanta the
twenty-fourth category is Prakriti and the
twenty-fifth is the Purusha, which is known as the
Supreme Being (Parameshwara). He is ever pure and
is not tainted with the stain of worldly
corruption, just as no amount of dirt can ever
alter the chemical purity of gold in a gold ring.
Therefore, soul or self in Vedanta means the
universal Soul, Paramatman or Supreme Spirit. This
is identified with Purusha, the efficient cause of
the manifest world. It brings all change by its
mere presence as the sun brings forth the spring
flowers.
Trika, on the other hand,
adds thirteen more tattwas to the twenty-three of
Sankhya. These are:
Prakriti - the world of
difference which has the quality of being
affected,
Purusha - the limited
individual,
Six Kanchukas or sheaths
- They are the limiting adjuncts on the individual
in respect of space, Knowledge, interest, time and
authorship.
So far this is all impure
knowledge.
Five more tattwas are
considered to be in the field of Pure- knowledge.
These are the five energies Parama Siva called
consciousness, bliss, desire, knowledge and
Action. Kashmir Shaivism postulates the single
reality of Siva with two aspects - one
Transcendental and the other Immanent like two
sides of one and the same coin. The first is
beyond manifestation. But both are real as the
effect cannot be different from the cause. It is
said:
ii) Vedanta discusses the
relationship of God, Matter and World. The central
theme of the Vedanta Sutras is the philosophical
teachings of the Upanishads, which concern the
nature of these three relative principles. This
includes the relation between the universal soul
and the individual soul. Shankaracharya explained,
for the practical purposes, this union in his
monumental commentaries in the 8th century A. D.
The system of Kashmir
Shaivism deals with the three-fold principle of
God, Soul and Matter, which gives it the name
Trika. Vasugupata ( 9th century A. D. ) received
the Siva- Sutras by inspiration and explained
these to preserve for man the principle of monism
which existed in the Tantras, also known as
Agamas. This revived an understanding of truth in
its ultimate form.
iii) In Vedanta, Maya, is
a means of operation. It is not a substance. It is
the force which creates illusion of non-perception
in nature. It is the dividing force or we may call
it the finitising energy which creates form in the
formless. The world is known as Maya because it
has no reality. It is only an appearance of
fleeting forms. The real is never affected by the
unreal as the ground is never made wet by a
mirage. Maya is ignorance (avidya) when it
operates the individual mind. It vanishes when the
knowledge of reality dawns just as the morning
mist dissipates on rising of the sun.
In Kashmir Shaivism Maya
is the power of contraction of the five universal
modes of consciousness, called the Kanchukas or
sheaths. The power of contraction works thus:
Eternal Existance
contracts into time
All-pervasiveness contracts into Space
All-completeness contracts into desire
All-knowledge contracts into limited knowledge
and, All-powerfulness contracts into limited
power
Maya-shakti, as it is called
here, produces Purusha and Prakriti which together
establish the dual world of mind and matter. Here
it is termed Maya-Granthi, as it becomes the cause
of bondage. As un- divided power of Siva, Maya is
not separate from the reality either. As the gross
power of consciousness it is called Maya-Shakti,
which grants liberation to the contracted soul.
The influence of Maya is evident in the law of
Nature. Every period of action is followed by a
period of rest just as sleep follows action.
iv) In Vedanta we are
required to pass through the four-fold discipline
which consisis of: viveka - Discrimination
vairagya - Dispassion shat-sampat - Right conduct
(six-fold ) :- a) Mental quietness; b) Taming the
mind; c) Abstinence; d) Endurance; e) Confidence;
and f) Steadiness.
mumukshutwa - Desite for
liberation. (Tattwabodha of Shankaracharya) 2(b).
There are also three
kinds of students who advance towards
self-realization. They are those :
i) who act with zeal
and faith,
ii) who act for the good of humanity,
iii) who are immersed in meditation.
But in Shaivism it is said: <verses>
'There is no
consideration of first being worthy of it. There
is no restriction of caste, creed of colour for
getting admission to this shaiva order. This
naturally must mean that it is the intelligent who
can grasp this advanced philosophy, being the
lastest development on all the others. For the
fine intellects no restriction is imposed. But
there are grades in Diksha-initiation. They are :
1. Samayik - when the
disciple is given the training of proper
discipline.
2. Putrak - when spiritual knowledge is imparted
to the disciple.
3. Acharya - when the disciple becomes Acharya
(preceptor) and imparts knowledge to other
disciples.
And
4. Siddha- - The perfect being. (vide Tantraloka)
3 (c)
v) Divine Grace is anugraha
in Vedanta and shaktipaata in Kashmir Shaivism.
Both the philosophies understand it to be
unconditional. They are in complete agreement on
this point. Vedanta says that intellectual power,
study of the Vedas and even spiritual instruction
are persuaded by divine grace alone :-
<verses>
'It is by Lord's grace
that one is led to monistic practices.' Again, the
Upanishads declare :-
<verses>
'Atma can be realized by
him whom He favours and to whom He reveals
Himself.'
In Shaivism also it is
Shaktipaata that makes self- recognition possible.
<verses>
'One is directed towards
the preceptor as if tethered with a rope' .
<verses>
'There is no human effort
to earn shaktipaata'.
It is the independent
will of Lord Siva to grant shaktipaata or divine
grace to any one at any place and at any time.
vi) Badarayan's viewpoint
is the outcome of the various schools of thought
of his day, as there existed Ashmarthya, Audulomi,
Kaashakritsna and others who had held different
views previously. His is the accepted classic of
the Vedanta system to-day. It was endorsed and
expanded by Gaudapada and Shankaracharya through
Maandukya karikas and Prasthanatrayi respectively.
Vidyaranya held the same view in his Panchadashi.
Likewise, we find that
the polytheistic faith with greater inclination
towards Shaivism developed into Kashmir Shaivism
or Trika philosophy with the advent of Vasugupta
and Somanandanatha. This peculiar philosophy
developed in Kashmir and includes almost all the
previous thoughts. It was further adored by
Kallata, Utpalacharya and later by
Abhinavaguptapada. Siva-Sutra, Sivadrishti, Spanda,
Ishwara- pratyabhijnavimarshini need special
mention in this context. Besides this,
Abhinavagupta's Tantraloka and Paratrimshika
Vritti form the encyclopaedia of Kashmir Shaivism.
To sum up, if we study
both these philosophies with interest and zeal, we
shall find that both lay stress on the practical
aspect, which is realization of the Self. Both
enable all to realise the teachings during one's
own lifetime. Their individual developments lead
to the common goal - Realization of the Supreme
Reality - where there is no experience of duality
and hence no sorrow. It is the state of absolute
bliss. It is the stateless state. The vedas
declare :-
<verses>
Truth is one but the wise
give it in many ways'.
Although Kashmir Shaivism
can hardly be grasped until all the six systems of
philosophy are comprehended, yet no such system of
India will be complete without this. No doubt,
Tantras suffered a great criticism from the
western and eastern scholars, due to their
esoteric or symbolic character. But thanks are due
to Sir John woodroffe (Arther Avalon), who was the
first to defend the outraged Tantras. In the
foreword to his book entitled 'The Garland of
Letters', Dr. T. M. P. Mahadevan (professor
Emeritus, Centre of Advanced study in philosophy,
University of Madras) writes :-
"The decent Indian
mind that had developed a deep-rooted prejudice
against the Tantras became awake to their
excellence after the pioneering work of this great
foreigner.''
He made their meaning
clear and helpful for understanding the culture of
India. Therefore, it is imperative that this line
of traditional literature should properly be
understood. Then it will be convincing to the
common man that Kashmir Shaivism gives the
detailed analysis of the ultimate Reality, which
Vedanta already explained on the basis of Saankhya
Philosophy.
REFERENCES
1. Stein, Dr. Aurel,
Rajatarangini (Tr.)
2. Adi Shankara, (a) Dahshinamurti Stotra (b)
Tattwabodha.
3, Abhinavaguptapada, (a) Ishwarapratyabhijnya
Vimarshini (b) Paramartha-sara, and (c)
Tantraloka. Pub. The Kashmir Series of Texts
& Studies, Srinagar.
4. Mahadevan, Dr. T. M. P. The Hymn to Sanhara,
Madras, Pub. Ganesh & Co.
5. Kaul, Jankinath, "Trika Shasana Ka
Aavirbhava,' in MALINI, Pub. Kashmir Shaiva
Institute, Gupta Ganga, Kashmir 1870.
6. Pandey, Dr. K, C., Abhinavagupta - an
Historical & Philosophical Study, Pub.
Chowhhamba Sanskrit Series office, Varanasi.
7. Lakshman Joo, Swami; Lectures on Kashmir
Shaivism (unpublished)
8. Chandogya Upanishad
9 Dattaatreya, Avadhoota Gita.
10. Mundaha Upanishad.
11. Woodroffe, Sir John. The Garland of Letters.
Madras, Pub. Ganesh & Co.
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