Shaivism &
Kashmir's Doctrine of 'Recognition' (Pratyabhijna)
by Dr. R. K. Kaw
PART I
Kashmir
Shaivism & Its Three Divisions:
Kashmir
Shaivism on the whole,
represents a particular religio- philosophical
school
of the valley. There are three main
divisions of the school corresponding to the
division of its literature into three Shastras :
(1) the Agama Shastra, (2) the Spanda Shastra and
(3) the Pratyabhijna Shastra. No. (1) Agama
Shastra is believed to be of divine origin. To
this class chiefly belong the following works :
Malini, Vijya or Vijayettara, Svacchanda Tuntram,
Vijnana Bhairava, Ananda Bhairava (lost), Mrgendra,
Matahga, Netra, Naishvasa, Svayambhuva,
Rudra-yamala, Vidyarnava, etc. Shiva-sutras which
were revealed later by the sage Vasugupta are said
to be the most important part of the Agama Shastra.
The next two divisions of the Shaiva Shastra
emerged as a result of development of human
thought concerning the main Shastra of divine
origin (Agama Shastra). The line of thought was
developed by two acharyas Bhatta Kallata (9th
century) and Somananda, contemporary of Vasugupta
(850-900 A.D.), in two different directions while
Kallata handed down the doctrine as a system of
religion, Somananda supplied the logical reasoning
in their support and thus founded a system of
Advaita philosophy of the Shaivas on the basis of
what was at first , taught as a system of faith.
Thus there appeared the other two Shastras, (2)
Spanda-shastra founded by Kallata and (3)
Pratyabhijna-shastra commenced by Somananda. The
three Shastras, all together, are generally known
as Trika Shastra (a shastra comprising three
classes). It is rightly observed that, out of
these three, Pratyabhijna only is the 'philosophy
proper of the Trika'. There has been a controversy
among scholars regarding the name of the
philosophical system of Shaiva Shastra. They think
that all these names Trika, Spanda and
Pratyabhijna are the designations of one and the
same system. These scholars seem not only to have
not observed the distinction between these
different systems, but have failed to notice that
Pratyabhijana system only is the philosophical
school of the Kashmir Shaivas. The special
literature that developed around the two schools
Spanda and Pratyabhijna is given in brief as
follows :-'Spanda Karika' and its 'Vrtti' by
Kallata, Vivrti by Ramakantha, Pradipika by Utpala,
, Spanda-Sandoha' by Kshemaraja and 'Spanda-Nirnaya'
also by Ksemaraja are the main works of Spanda
school. 'Shivadrashti' by Somananda, 'Ish.
Pratyabhijna Karika' with 'Vrtti' (gloss) and 'Siddhitrayi'
by Utpaladeva, 'Pratyabhijna-Vimarshini' (in two
volumes), 'Pratyabhijna-Vivrti-vimarshini' (in
three volumes) and 'Paramarthasara' by
Abhinavagupta, 'Pratyabhijna-hrdayam' with
commentary by Kshemraja and 'Bhaskari', a
commentary on Pratyabhijna Vimarshini', in two
volumes, by Bhaskaracharya, comprise mainly the
Pratyabbijna Shastra. All these works are
published in Kashmir Series of 'Texts and Studies
(KSTS), except Bhaskari, Vols. I and 2 which are
published as Nos. 82 and 83 of 'The Princess of
Wales Sarasvati' Bhavana Texts, Allababad, 1938,
1950'.
Distinctive
Features & Contents of Trika Shastra (in
brief)
Shaivism comprehends all
those systems of thought which evolved from
Shaivagamas and Shaiva Tantras. A Shaiva system
means any system based on Shaiva Tantras or
Agamas. Sixty-four systems of the Shaiva cult are
mentioned in the Shaiva scriptures of Kashmir
which include the Trika as one of them. As said
above, Trika is a triad, a group of three
divisions of Kashmir Shaivism, Agama, Spanda and
Pratyabhijna. These three Shastras can broadly be
divided into two systems only, a system of
religion or particular faith of Shaivas, which can
significantly be distinguished as Shaivism, and a
system of philosophical thought grown in Kashmir
among the followers of Shaivism or Shaiva cult,
which is rightly known as Pratyabhijna Philosophy.
It was Pandit Madhusudan Koul the learned editor
of KSTS, who for the first time pointed out in his
Preface to Ish. Partyabhijna Vimarshini, Vol. I,
that Pratyabhijna is the philosophy proper of the
Trika system. The philosophical content of the
Trika is first presented as Prityabhijna system by
Madhavacharya in his Sarvadarshana-samgraha (14th
Century) on the basis of title of the main
treatise of the system, Pratyabhijna Karika by
Utpaladeva. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan also includes
'the Pratyabhijna system' as one of the
philosophical systems in his Indian Philosophy,
Vol. II, for the apparent reason.
The Kashmir Shaivism as a
whole, iocluding the faith and philosophy of the
school, is presented in Trika Shastra. It is so
called (Trika) as, according to Paratrimshika, it
deals with the triple principle, Shiva, Shakti and
Anu; or Pati, Pasha and Pashu; or Nara, Shakti and
Shiva; or Para, Apara and Parapara. It is called
Trika for the reason that its chief authority is
the triad consisting of three chief Agamas, Siddha,
Namaka and Malini (Tantraloka I, 36), or for
another reason that it includes all the three
systems, Bheda (dualism), Abheda (non-dualism) and
Bhedabheda (dualism-cum-non-dualism). It is also
called Trika for the reason that it teaches the
threefold method of Agamic realization, viz.
Shambhavopaya, Shaktopaya and Anavopsya. It has
also been already stated that Trika is a triad
consisting of Agama, Spanda and Pratyabhijna
schools of Kashmir Shaivas. The terms referred to
in this para, which are derived from Agamas,
cannot be explained in this short article. (See,
K. C. Pandey, Abhinavagupta An Historical &
Philosophical Study, 170 ff. and J. C. Chatterji,
Kashmir Shairism, 1 fn. 2 )
Agama Shastra:
Geoerally speaking, Agama-Shastra
is mostly Sadhana-Shastra; i. e., it mainly deals
with ritualistic and mystic practices. Usually,
every Agama consists of four sections or Kandas
(1) Vidya or Jnana Kanda (Section dealing with
secret knowledge), (2) Yoga Kanda (Section dealing
with Yoga discipline, processes of concentration
and breathing exercises-pranayama), (3) Kriya
Kanda (Section dealing with action, viz,
ritualistic performances) and (4) Carya Kanda
(Section pertaining to forms of worship). The
works belonging to Agama Shastra of Kashmir,
mentioned above, include in their dogmatic
contents certain philosophical speculations also.
Some of them are mostly devotional. Some of them
give the rudiments of Kashmir Shaivism and teach
certain methods, mystical practices (upayas) for
achieving lower and higher Siddhis (occult powers)
and the glories of liberated life. These methods
prescribed in various Shaivagamas are called
Shambhavapaya
Shastra of Trika generally gives an exposition of
these three methods or ways (upayas) of
realization.
The Shiva-sutras are
believed to be a Rahasyagama-shastra-samgraha (a
compilation of secret Agama Shastra) being a work
of Shiva Himself. They, therefore, form the most
important part of the Agama Shastra to which is
attributed divine authorship. According to
tradition, recorded by Kshemaraja, the sutras were
found, by the sage Yasugupta inscribed on a rock
at the foot of Mahadeva mountain, about 12 miles
from Srinagar. It is said that Shrikantha, an
incarnation of Shiva, wishing to do a favour to
suffering humanity by the revelation of the
traditional sacred lore which unfolds the three
means of emancipation, appeared once before
Vasugupta in a dream and told him about these
sutras engraved under a big stone and also the way
to reveal them. The sutras were thus revealed to
Vasugupta who copied them to teach to his
disciples. The sutras are divided in three
sections, dealing with the three means of
liberation, Shambhava, Shakta and Anava. Guru
Vasugupta taught them to Kallata and others.
Kallata taught them to Kshemaraja who added a
commentary, called Vimarshini, to the sutras.
The very first sutra
emphatieally declares that man's consciousness in
its essential nature, is Atman (Caitanyam atma)
and the Atman itself is Shiva, the great Lord.
Maheshvara (atmaiva shivah). Apart from & few
highly philosophical declarations made in the
Shiva-sutras as a protest against the nihilistic
doctrines of certain schools of Buddhism and
against the doctrine of dualism (bheda) taught by
some schools, they constitute a practical treatise
devoted to the unfoldment of the three ways of
liberation (upayas), mentioned above, (upaya-pra-
kashanam). They also give the rudiments of Kashmir
Shaivism, such as malas (impurities) and pasas
(fetters), characteristics of various types of
perceivers, transmigratory subjects, Pati
(free-soul) and Pasu (soul under bondage),
different state of common perceivers and
extraordinary states (turya, the fourth state and
turyotita, beyond the fourth state) as experienced
by the Yogis, and so on.
Spanda Shastra:
The original text belonging
to this Shastra (Spanda-karika) and the literature
that subrequently developed on it, have already
been
seem to be the work of Kallata. The Spanda-shastra
lays down the main principles, as enumerated in
the Shiva-sutras, in a greater detail and in a
more amplified form, without giving philosophical
reasonings in their support. In fact, the Spanda
system owes its origin to the Shiva Sutras and
concerns itself with their elucidation and
popularisation. The author describes Spanda as
that power of consciousness which infuses life
into the physical senses. An object when sensed
has no basis apart from consciousness. Spanda
Karikas (verses) are 51 in number in which the
fundamental principles of Shavism, as
aphoristically given in the Shiva Sutras, are
epitomised. The basic idea underlying the
Spanda-Shastra is that Shiva's Spanda (energy) out
of its own nature manifests on the backgroud of
its own pure self the whole universe comprising
the thirty-six tattvas (principles or categories
of objective reality) from the earth upto Parama
Shiva. According to this doctrine, the world is a
play of energy force or vibration, which appears
to be in confirmity with the modern science. It is
not an illusion, the result of error in perception
(avidya) as the Vedantins suppose. Their doctrine
that 'vishva yan-na tad eva brahma' (what is not
the world, that is Brahman) is rejected by the
Spanda school.
Pratyabhijna Shastra:
It is not necessary to give
glimpses of Pratybhijna Shastra here, as it is
separately dealt with in detail in the Part II of
this paper which is exclusively concerned with
this philosophical school of Kashmir. Here it will
be remarked that metapysical reasoning (tarka) is
the essence of a philosophical system. It is this
philosophical content of the system that
Utpaladeva presents in a bold relief, and in a
systematic order, relevating the religious
dogmatism of the school to a subordinate position,
having devoted only a few sutras of his work (in
Agamadhikara) to the latter aspect of the school.
Pratyabhijna has been admitted to be a taraka
shastra (a system of logic and philosophy).
Tantraloka - a
Compendium of Trika Shastra:
Tantraloka, by Abhinavagupta,
includes the contents of all the three branches of
Kashmir Shaivism (Trika-Shastra), viz. Agama,
Spanda and Pratyabhijna in a summarised form. The
Tantraloka is a most voluminous work of
Abhinavagupta, composed in verse, and forms an
encyclopaedia of the Trika Shastra. The
Tantra-sara, by the same author, is just a brief
summary of the Tantroloka, written in easy prose.
It is an excellent introduction to Tantraloka. The
first Ahnika (Chapter) of Tantraloka is chiefly
philosophical. It opens with an explanat:on of the
first two Shiva-sutras and defines the key-word 'Caitanyam'.
This Caitanyam is emphatically declared to be the
Atman, 'the one nuclear core in every personality,
the one central point of reference in each and
every experience, the deepest depth of the sub-
conscious in each vividly concious personal ego'.
The same chapter of the work gives also the
definitions and explanations of various other
terms. The next four chapters of the work deal, in
detail, with the same three upayas (methods or
ways of realization) which constitute the three
sections of the Shiva-sutras. According to
Abhinavagupta, the three means or methods
described are those of Abheda (non-dualism),
Bhedabheda (dualism-cum-non-dualism) and bheda
(dualism) respectively. The Pratyabhijna is said
to be another way of realization, a way of mere
knowledge (awareness) and reasoning (tarka),
denominated by him as 'Anupaya marga' viz.,
requiring no practical performance of any kind,
ritualistic, mystic or yogic, or even devotion and
worship of any sort. Abhinavngupta says, this last
method (Anupaya-marga) is the highest of all the
methods, called also Anuttara, i. e. above the
first three methods (tato pi paramam jnanam
upayadi-vivarjitam..anuttaram ... ihocyate).
Various philosophical topics like time, space, the
nature and division of the thirty-six 'tattvas'
(principles of creation), the principle of 'Maya'
and its five offshoots, etc., are also dealt
within the different chapters of this work. The
rest of the work deals with various ritual
practices and forms of worship.
Philosophical
nucleus of Trika-Shastra:
Trika Shastra, comprising
the said three divisions of Kashmir Shaivism,
represents, in its philosophical context, a
concept of positivism in a theistic outlook in
contradistinction to the absolute monism of
Vedanta. According to the school, Shiva, the
Ultimate Reality, is the prolific cause and
'essence and identity' (Self) of every thing. He
abounds in bliss and consciousness (nirvrta-cit)
and is endowed with sovereignty of will,
omniscience and omnipotence (aniruddha-iccha-pra-
sarah prasarad-drkkriya sivah). He is everything
and yet beyond everything, or He is both immanent
(Vishvamayah) and transcendent (Vishvottirna).
Time, form and space do not limit him, for He is
above all mutution and change. 'Pashu' (a living
being) being the fragment of the inter-related
whole is no other than Shiva Himself, but is in a
state of limitation and self-forgetfulness.
Recognition of the state of Shivahood (divinity)
restores the original state of absolute perfection
to an individual (Pashu). This is his state of
Moksha (liberation). The Pasu has taken on three
impurities (Malas) which are responsible for
obscuring the divine within him. When these three
impurities get dissolved, he realizes the divine
within him in its crystalline purity.
PART II
Pratyabhijna School and its Teachers:
In fact, the religio-philosophical
school of Kashmir Shaivism is very old. Though its
inception or introduction in Kashmir is shrouded
in mystery, it was prevalent there long before the
time of Ashoka (273-232 B. C. ). Eighth and ninth
centuries of tha Christian era seem to have
witnessed a religious upheavel in Kashmir. This
followed a phiolosophic renaissance in the valley.
Kashmir was then a meeting ground of the various
philosophical currents. It is from the conconrse
of the then prevailing thought-currents flowing
from various schools of Buddhists, Vaidikas, the
Shaivas and Shaktas, the Vaiyakaranas
(Grammarians) the Samkhyas, the Naiyayikas, the
Vedantins and the expounders of the Yoga system,
that a monistic school of philosophy, distinctly
known as Pratyabhijna Shastra emerged in the
valley among the followers of Shaiva cult. The
Kashmir Shaivas, the originators of the
Pratyabhijna system, have incorporated in it most
of the ideas from the said systems and have
propounded their various doctrines in a technique
of their own derived from the Shaivagamas, which
distinguish the system from the other systems.
Somananda was indeed the
founder of the Pratyabhijna School which takes its
name from the 'Pratyabhijna karika' by Utpaladeva,
the disciple of the former. The credit of being
the founder of the school goes to Somananda, for
the reason that it is he who, for the first .....
a treatise (prakarana) on
Shaiva philosophy. Utpaladeva was in fact the
systematiser of Somananda's thought. Like
Shankaracharya, a commentator of Badarayana's
School of Vedanta, Abhinavagupta (another luminary
among the celebrities of Kashluir Shaivism) gets
the credit of being the expounder of Pratyabhijna
system. We are in possession of his two
commentaries? one short namely 'Vimarshini' and
the other long (Vivrti-vimarshini ), on the 'Pratyabhijana
Karika' of Utpaladeva. Somananda flourshed in the
later part of the ninth century A. D., Utpaladeva
in the first part of the tenth century and
Abhinavagupta in the last part of tho tenth and
the first part of the eleventh century.
Inception of
Pratyabhijna Philosophy:
Notwithstanding his devotion
to the secret doctrine of monistic Shaivagamas
handed down to him traditionally from his
ancestors, Somananda revolted against the
prevailing schools of thought, including certain
sections of Shaivas themselves. He summarily
criticised the various schools of Buddhism, the
Jainism, the Samkhya, the Nyaya and Vaisheshika,
the Vaivakarana nnd the monistic Vedanta. It
appears that Somananda was against the traditional
ideas ahout the divinity, the meaning and purpose
of life, the human activities and behaviours on
earth, the real significance of 'moksha'
(salvation or liberation) and the like. Somananda
seems to have conceived of re-interpreting religio-philosophic
thought in vogue in his day and laid the
foundation of a new school in its pristine purity,
eclectic in its essence and containing the noble
truths and glorious spiritual and humanistic
values of ancient Vedantic thought. This new
school came later to be known as 'Pratyabhijna
School' (the doctrine of Recognition) after the
title of the main treatise on the system, composed
by Somananda's disciple Utpaladeva. The doctrine
propounded in this school is indeed a reform and
revaluation or reappraisal of Indian religio-philosophical
thought .
Brief Idea of
Pratyabhijna Doctrine:
The strict sense of the term
'Pratyabhijna' is recognition, but in the system,
it comprehends the sense of awareness,
consciousness, realization, 'knowledge in
practice' or practical use of knowledge.
Pratyabhijna school thinks that man is ignorant
(unaware) of the very nature of one's own Self
(Shiva-Atman), viz. his inner being, the
profounder faculty within him, and its power of 'Iccha'
(Will), 'Jnana' (knowledge, Thougt) and 'Kriya'
(Action), viz., man's abilities with which he is
endowed by Providence. The school believes that
the powers (saktis) or abilities with which man is
born in this world, comprise his supreme (divine)
inheritence. It is only then, when he becomes
aware of his divine inheritence, that he can make
the best use of it in making his life successful
and felicitous.
Pratyabhijna is, in its
essence, a deep and systematic study of man as
microcosm and the world he lives in as macrocosm.
In it, there is a perfectly scientific analysis of
all the human faculities, man's entire physical,
mental and spiritual organisms and that of the One
Objective Reality (Parama Shiva) into thirty six
primary realitives indispensable for the
constitution of the universe and processes of
creation, etc. The system being broad-based,
tackles all the problems of human interest and
lays great stress on the spiritual values of life.
It is thus a school of 'Spiritual Pragmatism'.
Utpala, the second
teacher of the system, tells us that the
Pratyabhijna philosophy is ravealed to him by the
grace of the Lord (katham cit asadhya
maheshvarasya dasyam), and it is for the good of
humanity (janasya upakaram icchan) that he
expounds the doctrine. He says with emphasis that
man should recognise himself, viz., be aware of
his inner being (Self) and his deeper faculties of
'knowledge' and 'action' (drkkriyatmika Sakti), if
he desires to make his life all prosperous and
blissful (samasta sampat samavapti hetum tat
pratyabhijnam upapadayami). Our profounder
faculties remain hidden from us due to lack of
knowlege or experience and owing to innate
forgetfulness (moha) on our part. The Prityabhijna
is directed to removing the veil of ignorance from
us and turning our attention towards the deeper
faculties within us. The teacher believes that the
faculties of thought and action comprise the very
life of man (jnanam kriya hi bhutanam jivatam
jivanam matam). In the real sense of the term,
knowledge in that which is transformed into
action, or practical use of which is made in one's
life. Pratyabhijna says (hints) with emphasis that
knowledge put into action or practice is really
meaningful.
Supreme
Inheritence of Man:
Conception of the macrocosm
in the Pratyabhijna system is based on a very deep
study of the microcosm. The system believes that 'Maheshvara',
the Great Lord or Divine Father of all this
creation, endowed with 'Mahesvarya' or
Svatantrya-Shakti' (Sovereignty or Thought and
Action) with which he executed the acts of
creation, etc. of this orderly world. This 'Svatantrya-Shakti'
or creative power of the Lord is two-fold,
comprising 'Prakasha' and 'Vimarsha', viz. power
of manifestation and power of perception or
concretisation, functioning respectively as
Universal Consciousness (Psychical Power) and
Universal Energy (Physical Power or Objective
Reality), technically called 'Shiva' and 'Shakti'.
The former, i. e. Universal Consciousness assumes
three forms: Power of Remembrance (Smrti-shakti),
Power of Knowledge (Jnana-shakti) and Power of
Differentiation (Apohana-shakti). The latter. i.
e. Universal Energy functions as Powcr of Action (Kriya-
Shakti) of the Lord. This is governed by three
universal laws of Nature - the law of Division (Bhedabheda),
the law of Perception (Mana-tat-phala meya), and
the law of Causation (Karsna karya). The
Transcendental Lord (Vishvottirna) thus
concretises or materialises Himself into this
created world (becomes Vishvamaya, the cosmos) by
evolving thirty-six 'Tattvas' or primary realitics
from the One Objective Reality, the primordial
natural force principle or Prima Materia of all
thirgs. As the Lord is conceived to be endowed
with Svatantrya-shakti, viz. Sovereignty of will
and psychical and physical powers to make Him
potent to execute all creative activity which
accounts for the emanation of macrocosm with
ever-new creations of infinite sentient and
insentient beings from His Own Self or Being, so
is every individual created being ( as microcosm )
endowed with its potential powers (faculties) of
will, cognition and action, including psychical
powers of remembrance, knowledge and
differentiation (Samrti-shakti; Jnana-shakti and
Apohana-shakti) and its physical powers (Kriya-shakti)
as supreme inheritence from his Divine Father-Maheshvara
to make him potent to perform all creative
activity in his life time. It is 'recognition' or
awareness and right use of one's divine faculties
(supreme inheriterce) with which man is born in
this world that make his life felicitous and
blissuful (evam atmanam estasya samyag jnana -
kriye tatha, janan yathepsitan pashyan janati ca
karati ca). The fact is that the Self (being a
spark of the divine) is the pivot of one's life
and Self-recognition is the means of achieving
one's all fortunes and success in life (samasta-sampat
samavapti-hetum; janasya-ayatna siddhyartham).
Pratyabhijna
Values (human & spiritual)
Pratyabhijna is one of the
greatest humanistic movements of Kashmir, which
might well be called the 'Philosophy of Humanism'.
It is a wonderful synthesis of nearly all earlier
systems of India's philosophic thinking, and is
completely free from 'negativism' and escapism' of
certain schools of Vedantins and from the
'nihilism' of some Buddhist schools. It is most
realistic in its attitude to life. It is a most
dynamic system in which emphasis is laid on what
is called Svatantrya, the complete autonomy of
thought and action as the goal of life. It may
also be called a school of Spiritual Pragmatism,
because its doctrines have a practical bearing
upon human interests, besides having its main
direction to the spiritual elevation of humanity,
Pratyabhijna lays emphasis on human values and
cardinal virtues as are given, in brief, below:
Spiritual
& Moral Values in Pratyabhijna
According to Pratyabhijna,
human beings are by nature divine. They are the
sparks of the divine, children of God. The whole
mankind forms one family (manavah bandhavah sarve).
It is by self discipline (culture) and clean moral
life that man can unveil the divine qualities in
his personality. Love of God in this school means
love of human beings, of one's fellow -men. He who
loves God, loves everybody and looks on all men as
equals. Love of God is to be translated into
service of one's fellow - men and into such acts
are as conducive to the good and benefit of one
and all. Gentleness, righteousness, sympathy,
friendliness and honest dealings with one another
are qualities or virtues necessary for good life.
Pratyabhijna promotes the eternal values of peace
and freedom and human dignity beneficial to the
common man in their application to life. These
values are stated in terms like 'sarva-shivata'
(which signifies that the personality of every
human individual is divine or sacred), 'sarva-samata'
(meaning that all men are born equal ) 'sarva -
svatantrya' (i.e. all men are born free) and so
on. Thus the doctrine lays emphasis on 'liberty,
equality and fraternity' which is the famous motto
of 'the civilized world today. Above all,
Pratyabhijna directs man to working for peace and
tranquility of the world (Vishva-Shanti) an
following that as truth which is conducive to the
good and benefit of the whole humanity.
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